Some Other Perspectives on SLA
As a discipline, the study of L2A is newer and less developed than that of LIA. In part this is probably because unlike LIA research, the study of L2A has grown out of practical or applied concerns, such as language teaching. SLA study has largely concentrated on modeling the language development within the individual learner, in response to an environment defined narrowly as a source of linguistic information
Some researchers adopt a broadly functional or pragmatic approach to the study of learners ' interlanguage development and are centrally concerned with the ways in which L2 learners set about making meaning, and achieving their personal communicative goals. However, it is clear that some sustained programmes of empirical research are now developing, in which socio linguistic ideas are viewed as much more central to the understanding of SLA.
作为一门学科，L2A的研究比LIA的研究要新，也没有那么发达。部分原因可能是与LIA的研究不同，L2A的研究是出于实际或应用的考虑，如语言教学。SLA的研究集中在模拟学习者个人的语言发展，以应对狭义上的语言信息来源的环境。
一些研究者采用广泛的功能性或实用性方法来研究学习者的跨语言发展，并集中关注二级学习者如何创造意义和实现他们的个人交际目标。然而，很明显，一些持续的实证研究项目正在发展，其中社会语言学思想被视为对SLA理解的更核心的东西。
The term " functional " here is different from the one in the UG theory. Here, functionalism in linguistics is the explication of grammatical structure in which semantic and pragmatic constructs are integral. Theoretical linguists who have adopted this perspective in varying degrees include Halliday and other functionalists
A functional approach to L2A attempts to explain facts about the acquisition of an L2, either by an adult, or by a child. Researcher s studying child language have been interested in the meanings that children are trying to convey. The tab le of two - word utterances is drawn from one of the child language studies by Brown in 1973:
这里的 "功能 "一词与UG理论中的不同。这里，语言学中的功能主义是对语法结构的阐释，其中语义和语用结构是不可或缺的。在不同程度上采用这种观点的理论语言学家包括Halliday和其他功能主义者
L2A的功能方法试图解释关于成人或儿童习得第二语言的事实。 研究儿童语言的研究人员对儿童试图表达的意义感兴趣。两字句的标签来自于Brown在1973年进行的一项儿童语言研究。
These utterances are interpreted as expressing a range of semantic relations. The utterance " Daddy hit" is interpreted not as an expression of the formal syntactic relationship: Subject+ Verb, but as a combination of se mantic categories of “ Agent+ Action " . It shows that the child's language at this point is lacking in function words and overt morphological markers of case, tense, numb er, etc.
Some researchers in this tradition have argued essentially that " syntactic categories develop as prototypes based on semantic information." Others believe that formal syntactic categories have an independent origin and that interactions between syntactic, se mantic and pragmatic information are vital in driving forward L1A
Budwig (1995) produced a sur vey of broadly functionalist approaches to the study of child language growth, and divided them into four main " orientations " : cognitive orientation, textual orientation, social orientation and multifunctional orientation
这些话语被解释为表达了一系列的语义关系。语词 "爸爸打 "被解释为不是表达正式的句法关系。主语+动词，而是作为 "代理+行动 "的语义类别的组合。这表明，儿童的语言在这一点上缺乏功能词和明显的大小写、时态、数字等形态标记。
这一传统中的一些研究者基本上认为，"句法范畴的发展是基于语义信息的原型"。另一些人认为，正式的句法类别有独立的起源，句法、语义和语用信息之间的相互作用对推动L1A的发展至关重要。
Budwig（1995）对研究儿童语言成长的广泛功能主义方法进行了调查，并将其分为四个主要的 "方向"：认知方向、文本方向、社会方向和多功能方向。
Cognitive orientation can be exemplified by the work of Slobin who pro pose d the existence of a "basic child grammar " . Budwig described it by say in g that "one of the opening wedges for gramma r is the linguistic encoding of a scene in which an agent brings about a change of state in an object. " At the level of discourse, functional linguists are interested in how both vocabulary and grammar (connectives as and/but/whereas, deictic elements as this/that) are deployed to create textual cohesion across sequences of clauses and sentences
In child language studies, functional researches have examined the systems used by older children to establish cohesion in their narratives The following example is drawn from a particular study of children's gradual acquisition of the different discourse functions of English determiners ( Karmiloff -Smith, 1979: 222 - 223, translated from original French)
认知取向可以通过斯洛宾的工作来体现，他提出了 "基本儿童语法 "的存在。巴德维格描述说："语法的开端之一是对一个场景的语言编码，在这个场景中，一个代理人带来了一个物体的状态变化。"在话语的层面上，功能语言学家感兴趣的是词汇和语法（如and/but/whereas这样的连接词，this/that这样的描述性元素）是如何被部署的，以便在分句和句子的序列中创造文本的凝聚力。
在儿童语言研究中，功能研究者研究了年龄较大的儿童用来在他们的叙述中建立凝聚力的系统。下面的例子来自于对儿童逐渐获得英语定语从句的不同话语功能的特别研究（Karmiloff -Smith, 1979: 222 - 223, 译自法语原文）。
At Time 1, when Child C is just aged 7 years 9 months, she has difficulty in distinguishing the deictic and generic functions of the definite article; by Time 2, when she is aged 9 years 2 months, gener ic functions are used without any difficulty
在第一时间，当儿童C刚满7岁9个月时，她很难区分定语的表意功能和通用功能；在第二时间，当她满9岁2个月时，使用通用功能没有任何困难。
Functionalist research with a social orientation is interested in relationships between the development of children's formal language system, and aspects of their social world. Some of this work examined the speech acts that children perform, and their relationships with lexical or grammatical choices
Budwig re -analyzed some of the data gathered by Brown, arguing that expressions involving first-person possessive determiners (my pencil) consistently expressed different speech acts from expressions involving the child's own name (Adam pencil) — the first group were indicative (That's my pencil), whereas the second group were volitional (I, Adam,want a pencil)
In her research, Budwig examined the self -reference forms (I, me, my, Own Name, etc.) use d by a group of two -year -old children to express the se mantic notion s of agentivity and control, and also see ked to explain variability in usage in terms of the different pragmatic functions that were being expressed
Megan at 20 month s use d the three forms /, my and Meggie for se lf reference: my was seen as expressing high agentivity (my open that) , while Meggie expressed mid or low agentivity (Meggie swinging) and/ was used typically for mental state verbs (i wanna wear that). The difference s in usage could be related to pragmatic function, as my typically appeared in disputes over control of objects: My cups! said as Megan grabs cups from another child. Over time, Megan extended the use of i to perform a wider range of functions and her use of my and Own Name became more target - like
Budwig's study is typical of recent research on form -function relationships in child language. She reviews possible factors that may drive children forward to continually reorganize their system s of form - function relationships along the documented developmental path linguistic maturation ; cognitive development ; encounters with target input , and communicative need
7. 2.2 社会取向和多功能取向
具有社会取向的功能主义研究对儿童的正式语言系统的发展和他们的社会世界的各个方面之间的关系感兴趣。这方面的一些工作研究了儿童的言语行为，以及它们与词汇或语法选择的关系。
Budwig重新分析了Brown收集的一些数据，认为涉及第一人称占有性定语的表达方式（我的铅笔）与涉及儿童自己名字的表达方式（亚当的铅笔）一致地表达了不同的言语行为--第一组是指示性的（那是我的铅笔），而第二组是意志性的（我，亚当, 想要一支铅笔)
在她的研究中，Budwig考察了一组两岁儿童使用的自我参照形式（我，我的，我的，自己的名字，等等），以表达主动性和控制的语义概念，并试图用所表达的不同的实用功能来解释使用上的变化。
20个月大的Megan使用/、my和Meggie三种形式作为参考：my被认为表达了高度的主动性（my open that），而Meggie表达了中度或低度的主动性（Meggie swinging），并且/通常用于心理状态动词（I wanna wear that）。使用上的差异可能与语用功能有关，因为我的通常出现在对物体控制权的争议中。我的杯子！"梅根从另一个孩子手中抢过杯子时说。随着时间的推移，梅根扩大了i的使用范围，以执行更广泛的功能，她对my和Own Name的使用变得更有针对性--如
Budwig的研究是最近关于儿童语言中形式-功能关系的典型研究。她回顾了可能的因素，这些因素可能促使儿童沿着有记载的发展道路不断重组他们的形式-功能关系系统，语言成熟；认知发展；遇到目标输入，以及交际需要
The functionalist view claim s that language development is driven by pragmatic communicative needs, and that the formal resources of language are elaborated to express more complex patterns of meaning. Its research typically takes the case studies of individuals or groups of learner s, usually adults in the early stages of L2A, who are acquiring the language in informal environments rather than in the class room. These studies have offered us rich accounts of both the rate and route of naturalistic L2A, at least in the early stages
7.3 功能主义对理解 SLA 的贡献
功能主义观点认为，语言的发展是由实用性的交际需求所驱动的，语言的正式资源被精心设计以表达更复杂的意义模式。它的研究通常是对学习者的个人或群体进行个案研究，通常是处于L2A早期阶段的成年人，他们在非正式环境中而不是在教室里学习语言。这些研究为我们提供了关于自然的L2A的速度和路线的丰富说明，至少在早期阶段是如此。
The functionalist tradition has added an understanding of interlanguage (IL) communication, and has made interesting suggestions about the interactions of formal and functional development
Functionalist researchers have demonstrated the wide range of devices (lexical and pragmatic as well as formal) which IL users adopted in order to convey meaning. The hypothesis has suggested how learners may use overlaps in word meaning and morphological form as an entry point into formal subsystems of their target language
A continuing limitation on functionalists ‘characterization of IL 1s that most attention has been paid to the earliest stages of development The IL of more advanced learners has been explored thoroughly in some areas only, such as the development of reference to past time and the use of past- tense verb morphology (Bardovi -Harlig, 2000). The range of target languages investigated is also not very wide (most research has been done with Germanic or Romance languages ) and the extent of influence of learners ' L I on post -basic varieties is not clear
7. 3.l 功能主义和语言间的性质
功能主义传统增加了对语言间交流的理解，并对形式和功能发展的相互作用提出了有趣的建议。
功能主义的研究者已经证明了IL使用者为传达意义而采用的各种手段（词汇、语用以及形式）。这一假设表明，学习者如何利用词义和词形的重叠作为进入目标语言正式子系统的切入点。
功能论者对IL的描述有一个持续的局限性，那就是大部分注意力都放在了IL发展的最初阶段，而对更高级的学习者的IL只在某些方面进行了深入的探讨，比如对过去时间的提及和过去式动词形态的使用的发展（Bardovi-Harlig, 2000）。调查的目标语言范围也不是很广（大多数研究都是针对日耳曼语或罗曼语的），学习者的L I对后基础语种的影响程度也不清楚。
Functionalist researchers insist universally on the gradual nature of L2 development and syntacticization, with learners working actively on only part of the system at any one time, but with possible reorganizational consequences that may spread widely through the system. At the same time, most functionalist researchers have so far adopted a " patch " approach, working on overall utterance structure, or alternatively exploring development within semantic and formal sub - systems
Functionalist research has also focused largely on the analysis of learners ' L2 output, and has paid relatively less attention to input and even to interaction. Bardovi - Harlig has noted the frequency in input of adverbial forms, and appeals to input processing theory by VanPatten (2002) in suggesting that learners may therefore not need to notice or process verb morphology in the language that they hear
Conversely, Andersen makes claims in respect to frequency patterns in input, when commenting on the acquisitional patterns associated with the aspect hypothesis. As far as the European Science Foundation research is concerned, however, the main research team paid little attention to the details of input and interaction in which their subjects were engaged. They have not paid detailed or sys thematic attention to the e mergence within interaction of new linguistic forms
7. 3.2 关于语言学习和发展的功能主义
功能主义研究者普遍坚持L2发展和句法化的渐进性，学习者在任何时候都只对系统的一部分积极工作，但可能产生的重组后果会在系统中广泛传播。同时，到目前为止，大多数功能主义研究者都采用了 "修补 "的方法，研究整体的语篇结构，或者探索语义和形式子系统的发展。
功能主义研究也主要集中在分析学习者的第二语言输出上，而对输入甚至互动的关注相对较少。Bardovi - Harlig注意到副词形式在输入中的频率，并援引VanPatten（2002）的输入处理理论，认为学习者可能因此不需要注意或处理他们听到的语言中的动词形态。
相反，Andersen在评论与方面假说有关的习得模式时，对输入中的频率模式提出了主张。然而，就欧洲科学基金会的研究而言，主要的研究小组很少注意他们的研究对象所参与的输入和互动的细节。他们没有对新的语言形式在互动中的融合给予详细的或系统的主题关注。
Much functionalist research has concerned it self with naturalistic adult learners, acquiring a socially dominant L2 in the workplace and other non -domestic settings. The driving forces promoting SLA for such learners have been explained as: a) immediate communicative need, and b) a longer - term and more variable desire for social integration within the L2 community
Functionalists have conducted extensive comparative cross - language research, but have been mainly interested in the discovery of universal rather than language specific characteristics of the learning process Functionalist research on the emergence of L2 morphology has, however, concerned it self with instructed learners , who are seen as more successful in acquiring L2 morphology
However it is not clear from a functionalist perspective why classroom learners should be more successful than uninstructed learners It is possible that cl ass room discourse forces L2 learners to attend to the communicative value of formal items ( tense and aspect morphology) , which are communicatively redundant in daily discourse. But this idea has not been followed up systematically by any of the research groups
7. 3. 3 功能主义对语言学习者的影响
很多功能主义研究都关注自然主义的成人学习者，他们在工作场所和其他非家庭环境中获得社会主导的第二语言。促进这类学习者SLA的动力被解释为：a）即时的交际需要，和b）长期的、更多的在L2社区中融入社会的愿望。
功能论者进行了广泛的跨语言比较研究，但主要是对发现学习过程中的普遍性而非语言的特殊性感兴趣。 然而，功能论者对二级形态学的出现的研究主要是针对受指导的学习者，他们被认为在获得二级形态学方面更成功。
然而，从功能主义的角度来看，并不清楚为什么课堂上的学习者会比未受指导的学习者更成功。可能是课堂上的话语迫使二级学习者关注正式项目（时态和语态）的交际价值，这些项目在日常话语中是多余的。但这个想法还没有被任何一个研究小组系统地跟进。
Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky, born in 1896 in Orsha, in the Russia n Empire (today in Belarus ), was a researcher and theorist of child development. He was active in Moscow between 1925 and his early death in 1934. His Thought and Language in English appeared in 1962
His views on child development have become increasingly influential, having been taken up and promoted by psychologists and child development theorists and applied in classroom studies by man y educational researchers. Parts of his wide - ranging writings remain untranslated, and contemporary interpretations and modications to
Vygotsky's original ideas mean that current sociocultural theory is best described as "neo -Vygotskyan ". A numb er of key ideas current in contemporary interpretations or discuss ions of Vygotsky have recently been taken up by SLA theorists
7.4 关于SLA的社会文化观点
7. 4.1 社会文化理论
Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky，1896年出生在俄罗斯帝国的奥尔沙（今天在白俄罗斯），是一位儿童发展的研究者和理论家。从1925年到1934年早逝，他一直活跃在莫斯科。他的《思想与语言》英文本于1962年出版。
他关于儿童发展的观点已经变得越来越有影响力，被心理学家和儿童发展理论家采纳和推广，并被许多教育研究人员应用于课堂研究。 他范围广泛的部分著作仍未被翻译，而当代对维果茨基原著的解释和修改也是如此。
维果斯基的原始思想意味着目前的社会文化理论最好被描述为 "新维果斯基"。当代对维果茨基的解释或讨论中的一些关键观点最近被SLA理论家所采纳。
Researchers working in a socio -cultural framework are making an attempt to apply a theory of cognition and of development that has been influential in other domains of social and educational research, to the language - learning problem. Learning is seen as a social and int er - mental activity, taking place in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which precedes individual development ( view as the internalization or appropriation of soc ia lly constructed knowledge)
The empirical rese arc h has used a varied range of socio -cultural constructs, such as private speech, activity theory, scaffolding the ZPD to address a variety of aspects of SLA, from the acquisition of lexis and grammar, to meta - cognition and the development of learning strategies, via the development of skills such as L2 writing
This commitment to ethnographic research techniques is in line with the tenets of activity theory about the unique and holistic character of interact ion within the individual ZPD. The students studied by Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) imp roved the accuracy of their written English
Up to now, the strongest sociocultural claims about the relationship between interaction and learning have been made on a local scale, with reference to discrete elements of language. Their potential as a general account of language learning has not yet been demonstrated
7. 4.2 社会文化研究的范围
在社会文化框架内工作的研究人员正试图将在社会和教育研究的其他领域具有影响力的认知和发展理论应用于语言学习问题。学习被认为是一种社会和心理活动，发生在近端发展区（ZPD），它先于个人发展（被认为是对社会构建的知识的内化或占有）。
实证研究使用了各种社会文化建构，如私人演讲、活动理论、支架ZPD来解决SLA的各个方面，从词汇和语法的获得，到元认知和学习策略的发展，通过L2写作等技能的发展。
这种对人种学研究技术的承诺符合活动理论中关于个人ZPD内互动离子的独特和整体特征的信条。Aljaafreh和Lantolf(1994)研究的学生提高了他们书面英语的准确性。
到目前为止，关于互动和学习之间关系的最有力的社会文化主张是在局部范围内提出的，并参考了语言的离散要素。它们作为语言学习的一般说明的潜力还没有被证明。
The sociocultural view believes in the centrality of language as a "tool for thought " , or a means of mediation, in mental activity. In turn, it is claim ed that the nature of our available mental tools can itself shape our thinking to some extent
From this view, learning is also a mediated process. It is mediated partly through learners ' developing use and control of mental tools (languages, the central tool for learning). Importantly, learning is also seen as socially mediated, dependent on face -to -face interaction and shared processes, as joint problem solving and dis cuss ion
A mature, skilled individual is capable of autonomous functioning, that is of self -regulation. However, the child or the unskilled individual learns by carrying out tasks and activities under the guidance of other more skilled individual s, such as caretakers or teachers. The child or the learner is inducted into a shared understanding of how to do things through collaborative talk , until eventually they take over (or appropriate) new knowledge or skilled into their individual consciousness
So, successful learning in volves a shift from collaborative int er - mental activity to autonomous intra - mental activity. The process of supportive dialogue which direct s the attention of the learner to key features of the environment, and which prompts them through successive steps of a problem, has come to be known as scaffolding
The ZPD was defined as " the difference between the child's developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with mor e capable peers" (Vygotsky, 19 78: 85)
For the entire human race, as well as for the individual infant, learning is seen as first social, then individual. Consciousness and conceptual development are seen firstly as int er - mental phenomena, shared between individuals; later, individual s develop their consciousness, which becomes an intra -menta l phenomenon
Donato (1994) claim s that "scaffolded performance is a dialogically constituted neuropsychological mechanism that promotes the novice's internalization of knowledge co -constructed in shared activity." The metaphor of scaffolding has been developed in neo -Vygotskyan dis cuss ions to capture the qualities of the type of other - regulation within the ZPD which is supposedly most helpful for the learning or apocopation of new concepts
Scaffolded help has the following functions:
1) recruiting interest in the task ;
2) simplifying the task;
3) maintaining pursuit of the goal;
4) marking critical features and discrepancies between what has been;
5) producing the ideal solution ;
6) controlling frustration during problem solving
7) demonstrating an idealized version of the act to be performed
For human beings, and even for the individual infant, language is the prime symbolic mediating tool for the development of consciousness Throughout their life, human beings remain capable of learn in g; and the local learning process for mor e mature individual s acquiring new knowledge or skills is viewed as essentially the same. New concepts continue to be acquired through social or interactional means
7. 4. 3 调解与ZPD
7. 4. 3.l 调解和调解学习
社会文化观点认为，语言作为一种 "思想工具"，或作为一种中介手段，在心理活动中处于核心地位。反过来说，我们可用的心理工具的性质在某种程度上也能塑造我们的思维。
从这个观点来看，学习也是一个中介过程。它部分是通过学习者对心理工具（语言，学习的核心工具）的发展使用和控制来中介的。重要的是，学习也是
重要的是，学习也是以社会为中介的，依赖于面对面的互动和共享过程，如共同解决问题和讨论。
一个成熟的、有技能的个体是能够自主运作的，即自我调节。然而，儿童或无技能的人通过在其他更有技能的人，如看护人或教师的指导下执行任务和活动来学习。儿童或学习者通过合作交谈，被引入对如何做事的共同理解，直到最终他们接管（或适当）新的知识或技能进入他们的个人意识。
因此，成功的学习意味着从协作的内部心理活动转变为自主的内部心理活动。支持性对话的过程将学习者的注意力引向环境的关键特征，并提示他们完成问题的连续步骤，这一过程被称为支架。
7. 4. 3.2 维果斯基的ZPD
ZPD被定义为 "由独立解决问题所决定的儿童发展水平与在成人指导下或与能力较强的同伴合作解决问题所决定的更高的潜在发展水平之间的差异"（Vygotsky, 19 78: 85）。
对于整个人类以及婴儿个体而言，学习首先被视为社会性的，然后才是个体性的。意识和概念的发展首先被看作是个人之间共享的内部心理现象；后来，个人发展了自己的意识，这就成为了个人内部的一种现象。
多纳托（1994）声称 "支架式表现是一种对话式的神经心理学机制，它促进了新手对共同活动中所构建的知识的内化。" 在新维果茨基的讨论中，"支架 "这一隐喻被开发出来，以捕捉ZPD中其他调节类型的特质，据说这对新概念的学习和理解最有帮助。
有支架的帮助有以下功能。
1) 激发对任务的兴趣。
2) 简化任务。
3）保持对目标的追求。
4) 标明关键特征和已经发生的事情之间的差异。
5）产生理想的解决方案。
6）在解决问题的过程中控制挫折感
7）展示要执行的行为的理想化版本。
对人类来说，甚至对个别婴儿来说，语言是意识发展的主要象征性中介工具 在整个生命中，人类仍然有能力学习；而对于成熟的个体来说，获得新知识或技能的局部学习过程被认为是基本相同的。新的概念继续通过社会或互动的方式获得
Sociocultural theory views language as a "tool for thought". It is therefore critical theories of communication, which present language primarily as an instrument for the passage back and forth of predetermined messages and meanings. Communication is seen as central to the joint construction of knowledge (including that of language forms), which is first developed inter-mentally, and then internalized by individuals
Similarly, private speech, meta -statement, etc., are valued positively as instruments for self -regulation, as the development of autonomous control over new knowledge. However, sociocultural theorists of SLA do not offer in its place any thorough or de tail e d view of the nature of language as a system
Indeed, most of the studies on language development within the ZPD have focused on individual lexical items or morph syntactic features as defined in traditional descriptive grammars. This limitation is recognized by researchers in the field. Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) point out if this tradition is to realize it s ambitions to transform SLA research, it will need to locate itself mor e exp licitly with respect to linguistic theory
7. 4. 4 语言和交流的社会文化观
社会文化理论认为语言是一种 "思想的工具"。因此，它是批判性的交流理论，它把语言主要作为预定信息和意义的来回传递的工具。交流被看作是知识（包括语言形式的知识）共同构建的核心，它首先是在精神间发展的，然后由个人内化的
同样，私人演讲、元陈述等，作为自我调节的工具，作为对新知识的自主控制的发展，也被积极地评价。然而，SLA的社会文化理论家并没有对语言作为一个系统的性质提供任何彻底的或有价值的观点。
事实上，在ZPD范围内，大多数关于语言发展的研究都集中在传统描述性语法所定义的个别词项或形态句法特征上。这一局限性得到了该领域研究者的认可。Aljaafreh和Lantolf(1994)指出，如果这一传统要实现其改变SLA研究的雄心壮志，它就需要在语言学理论方面更加明确地定位自己。
Sociocultural theorists assume that the same general learning mechanisms will apply to language, as to other forms of knowledge and skill. However, all learning is seen as first social, then individual; first int er -mental, then intra -mental. Learner s are seen as active constructors of their own learning environment. So, all this can be related to ideas of automatization and proceduralization of new knowledge
Ohta (200 I) has developed a very full account of language learning that integrates a range of sociocultural concepts with cognitive ideas about learning processes. She sees private speech as giving rich opportunities for repetition and rehearsal of new language items , hypothesis testing, and the manipulation of target structure s during language play and the private rehearsal of interactional routines prior to use
Similarly, she sees peer interaction and co -construction as providing learners with increased opportunities for noticing, selective attention to different aspects of target language production and increasing the capacity of working memory. Her classroom data provide rich exemplification in support of these detailed claims
But while sociocultural theorists are ready to claim that ZPD - support ed intentional learning can precede development, they have not seriously addressed the empirical quest ion as to whether intervention in the ZPD s imply scaffolds people mor e rapidly along the common routes of interlanguage development, or whether language learning can bypass or alt er these routes, by skilled co -const ruction
The preoccupation of sociocultural theorists with class room learning should be not ed. This reflects current enthusiasm among educator s generally for Vygotsky's ideas. Concepts of ZPD, scaffolding and activity theory provide appealing alternative interpretations of the SLA and developmental opportunities afforded by classroom basics such as teacher
-student interaction, problem -solving and communicative tasks, learner strategy training, focus on form and corrective feedback
This ensures that sociocultural theory will receive continuing attention, despite of its apparent " incommensurability" with the vision of language as an autonomous and abstract system acquired through specialized mechanisms, which predominates in SLA research and has in spired most of the empirical work
7. 4. 5 语言学习的社会文化观
社会文化理论家认为，与其他形式的知识和技能一样，一般的学习机制也适用于语言。然而，所有的学习都被认为是先有社会性，后有个体性；先有内部性，后有内部性。学习者被视为积极的建设者 他们自己的学习环境。因此，所有这些都可以与新知识的自动化和程序化的想法相关。
大田(200 I)对语言学习进行了非常全面的阐述，将一系列社会文化概念与学习过程的认知理念结合起来。她认为私人说话为重复和排练新的语言项目提供了丰富的机会，在语言游戏和使用前私人排练互动程序期间，对目标结构进行假设测试和操作。
同样，她认为同伴间的互动和共同构建为学习者提供了更多的机会，使他们能够注意到目标语言生产的不同方面并增加工作记忆的能力。她的课堂数据提供了丰富的例证来支持这些详细的主张。
但是，尽管社会文化理论家们准备宣称ZPD支持的有意学习可以先于发展，他们并没有认真解决经验上的问题，即对ZPD的干预是否意味着将人们沿着语言发展的常见路线更迅速地提升，或者语言学习是否可以绕过或改变这些路线，通过熟练的共同诱导。
社会文化理论家们对课堂学习的关注应该是值得注意的。这反映了当前教育工作者对维果茨基思想的普遍热衷。ZPD、支架和活动理论的概念为SLA和课堂基本要素所提供的发展机会提供了吸引人的替代性解释，如教师-学生互动、问题-学生互动和活动。 -学生互动、问题解决和交流任务、学习者策略训练、注重形式和纠正性反馈等课堂基本要素所提供的发展机会。
这确保了社会文化理论将得到持续的关注，尽管它与语言作为一种通过专门机制获得的自主和抽象系统的观点明显 "不相称"，而这种观点在SLA研究中占主导地位，并对大多数经验性工作产生了影响。
Sociolinguistics is itself a diverse field with multiple theoretical perspectives. Considering this fact, the following section will necessarily be selective, identifying the theoretical strands within contemporary sociolinguistics and anthropological linguistics that are having the clearest impact on the field of SLA.
The successive section will therefore deal with:
1) variability in L2 use;
2) L2 socialization;
3) communities of practice and situated SLA;
4) SLA and the (re)construction of identity
5) affect and emotion in SLA.
The strand of sociolinguistic research is mainly concerned with language learning and development: the study of language socialization The research has its roots in anthropological linguistics and focuses on ethnographic studies of children learning to talk, to read and to writ e their Ll, in varied societies. Researchers in the language socialization tradition believe that language and culture are not separable, but are acquired together, with each providing support for the development of the other
Ochs and Schieffelin (1984; 1995) examined talks to children and by children in a variety of societies and showed that these practices were themselves culturally organized. In the well -studied whit e middle class communities of North America, infants were viewed as conversational partners almost from birth, with caretakers interacting with them extensively one -to -one, and compensating for their conversational limit ations by imputing meaning to their utterances, and engaging in clarification routines (e.g. by use of comprehension checks and recasts)
In Samoa, a small islandic country in South Pacific Ocean, inf ants are not viewed as conversational partners at all for the first few months. Then, they are encouraged to get in volved in different types of interaction, for example being taught explicitly to call out the names of passers - by on the village road. Among the Kaluli, there is much direct teaching of interactional routines; however, in both communities, children's unintelligible utterances are seldom clarified or recast
Ochs (1988) examined Samoan children's early utterances, and provided examples of links between linguistic development and socialization into particular roles and routines. Ochs documented in stances of Samoan infants ' early vocalizations being interpreted in this way. In all these cultural settings, children learn successfully to talk, leading them to conclude that: "grammatical development per se cannot be accounted for in terms of any single set of speech practices in volving children"
A language socialization perspective, in contrast, aims to take systematic account of the wider frameworks and socially recognized situations within which speech acts are performed. In summary, a language socialization perspective predicts that there will be a structured strategic relationship between language development and " culturally organized situations of use"
7.5 关于SLA的社会语言学观点
社会语言学本身就是一个具有多种理论视角的多元化领域。考虑到这一事实，下面的章节必然是有选择的，确定当代社会语言学和人类学语言学中对SLA领域影响最明显的理论支线。
因此，接下来的部分将涉及到
1）第二语言使用的可变性；
2）第二语言的社会化；
3）实践社区和处境的SLA；
4）SLA和身份的（再）构建
5）SLA中的情感和情绪。
7. 5. I LI和文化之间的发展联系
社会语言学的研究主要涉及语言学习和发展：语言社会化的研究，其根源在于人类学语言学，重点在于对不同社会中儿童学习说话、阅读和写作的民族志研究。语言社会化传统的研究者认为，语言和文化是不可分割的，而是共同获得的，每一种都为另一种的发展提供支持。
Ochs和Schieffelin（1984年；1995年）研究了各种社会中对儿童的谈话和儿童的谈话，表明这些做法本身就是文化上的组织。在被充分研究的北美中产阶级白人社区，婴儿几乎从出生起就被视为对话伙伴，照顾者与他们进行广泛的一对一互动，并通过对他们的话语赋予意义和参与澄清程序（例如通过使用理解检查和复述）来补偿他们的对话限制。
在萨摩亚，一个位于南太平洋的小岛国，婴儿在最初的几个月里根本不被看作是对话伙伴。然后，他们被鼓励参与不同类型的互动，例如，被明确教导要叫出村道上路人的名字。在卡卢利人中，有很多直接的互动教学；然而，在这两个社区中，儿童的不理解的言语都没有被发现。
然而，在这两个社区，儿童无法理解的话语很少得到澄清或重塑。
Ochs（1988）研究了萨摩亚儿童的早期话语，并提供了语言发展与社会化的特定角色和常规之间的联系的例子。 Ochs记录了萨摩亚婴儿的早期发声被这样解释的情况。在所有这些文化环境中，儿童都成功地学会了说话，这使他们得出结论："语法发展本身就是一种文化。"语法的发展本身不能用任何一套单一的语言实践来解释。
与此相反，语言社会化的观点旨在系统地考虑更广泛的框架和社会认可的情况，在这些情况下，言语行为被执行。总之，语言社会化的观点预测，在语言发展和 "文化组织的使用情况 "之间会有一个结构化的战略关系。
The LI socialization perspective has proved appealing to SLA researchers who are concerned to develop a more integrated perspective on language learning, viewed as both a cognitive and a social process. One of the first L2 researchers to use this perspective was Poole, who conducted an ethnographic study of adult English L2 classrooms, claiming that "a teacher ' s language behavior is culturally motivated to an extent not generally acknowledged in most L2 literature" (1992: 593)
Poole showed that the teachers in her study scaffolded their learners extensively and led and directed whole class tasks as group activities However, in the closing stages of these same tasks, the teachers praised the students as if they alone had accomplished them. This was reflect ed in the teachers' pronoun usage; thus one teacher introduced a task with " Describe the picture and see if we can make a story out of it." Then, at the end, the teacher praised the class: "Good work you guys!" " That's hard!" " you -you did a good job." " I ' m impressed! " (1992: 605)
The ideas of socially situated learning which takes place through participation in the activities of one or mor e communities of practice, have bee n used to st udy L2 development among both children and adults
One obvious application is to view the classroom as a community of practice, as Toohey (2000) has done in a study of a group of six young English as L2 learners. Over a three -year period, the study tracked the children's developing identities and patterns of participation as they progressed from kindergarten to second grade of primary school. He showed that some were more successful than others in establishing themselves as legitim ate peripheral participants in the classroom community.
Another study that adopted the same overall view of language learning as a social practice, located in communities of practice, is that of Norton in 2000. This study was conducted with five adult women from diverse language backgrounds, all of them recent immigrants to Canada, who were attending classes of English as L2 but also using English to different degrees at home and in a variety of workplaces. The women participants completed questionnaires and diaries, and were also interviewed at intervals, over a space of two years
One participant in the study was a Polish girl called Eva, who was living with a Polish partner, and hoped eventually to study at university She was working at a restaurant called Munchies, where at first she could not approach her co -workers or engage them in conversation: "When I see that I have to do everything and nobody cares about me because — then how can I talk to them? I hear they doesn’t care about me and I don' t feel to go and smile at them. " (2000)
As time passed, however, she gained enough confidence to find conversational openings, joining in conversations about holidays with her own experiences of holidays in Europe. Thus, she gained acceptance as a "legitimate speaker", and correspondingly developed her opportunities for using English
However, she paid close attention to how her fellow workers did this, appropriated their utterances during routines such as ordering meals, and took the initiative to start serving customers directly. In this way Eva widened her participation in the linguistic practices of the restaurant, and further increased her own language learning opportunities as a result
Toohey and Norton (2001) argued that the qualities that made Eva
successful L2 learners has to do only partly with her action s and interventions. Critical to her success was the fact that she gained more and mor e access to the social and verbal activities of the target language community of practice
In the case, Eva experienced attempt s to subordinate or isolate her, however, she could and did draw on both social and intellectual resources to overcome these difficulties. So, the learners ' success in being accepted was central to access to language learning opportunity; and this success derived partly from their own actions, partly from their respective communities’ willingness to adapt and to accept them as legitimate participants
7. 5.2 对作为情景社会实践的SLA的实证研究
LI社会化的观点已被证明对SLA的研究者很有吸引力，他们关注的是对语言学习的更综合的观点，将其视为一个认知和社会过程。最早使用这一观点的L2研究者之一是Poole，他对成人英语L2课堂进行了人种学研究，声称 "教师的语言行为在文化上是有动机的，其程度在大多数L2文献中没有得到普遍承认"（1992: 593）。
Poole表明，在她的研究中，教师为他们的学习者提供了广泛的支架，并将整个班级的任务作为小组活动来领导和指导。然而，在这些任务的结束阶段，教师赞扬了学生，好像只有他们完成了任务。这反映在教师的代词使用上；因此，一位教师在介绍任务时说："描述一下图片，看看我们能不能用它编一个故事"。然后，在最后，老师表扬了全班。"你们干得不错！" " 这很难！" " 你 - 你做得很好。" "我印象深刻！"。" (1992: 605)
通过参与一个或多个实践社区的活动而发生的社会情境学习的想法，已被用于研究儿童和成人的二级发展。
一个明显的应用是将课堂视为一个实践社区，正如Toohey(2000)在对一组六名年轻的英语二级学习者的研究中所做的。在三年的时间里，该研究追踪了孩子们从幼儿园到小学二年级的成长过程中的身份和参与模式。他表明，有些孩子比其他孩子更成功地将自己确立为课堂社区的合法外围参与者。
另一项研究是诺顿在2000年进行的，该研究采用了同样的总体观点，即语言学习是一种社会实践，位于实践社区中。这项研究的对象是五位来自不同语言背景的成年女性，她们都是最近才移民到加拿大的，她们参加了作为第二语言的英语课程，但也在家里和各种工作场所中不同程度地使用英语。参与研究的妇女填写了调查问卷和日记，并在两年时间里每隔一段时间接受采访。
她在一家名为Munchies的餐厅工作，起初她无法接近她的同事或与他们进行交谈。"当我看到我必须做所有的事情，没有人关心我，因为--那么我怎么能和他们交谈？我听到他们不关心我，我不觉得要去对他们微笑。" (2000)
然而，随着时间的推移，她获得了足够的自信，找到了谈话的机会，用她自己在欧洲度假的经历加入到关于假期的谈话中。因此，她作为一个 "合法的说话者 "获得了认可，并相应地增加了她使用英语的机会。
然而，她密切关注她的同事们是如何做的，在例行公事中，比如点餐，她挪用了他们的话语，并主动开始直接为顾客服务。通过这种方式，Eva扩大了她对餐厅语言实践的参与，并因此进一步增加了她自己的语言学习机会。
Toohey和Norton(2001)认为，使Eva成为成功的第二语言学习者的素质成功的第二语言学习者，只有部分与她的行动和干预有关。对她的成功至关重要的是，她越来越多地接触到目标语言实践社区的社会和言语活动。
在这个案例中，Eva遇到了试图使她从属或孤立的情况，然而，她能够也确实利用了社会和智力资源来克服这些困难。因此，学习者成功地被接受是获得语言学习机会的核心；这种成功部分来自于他们自己的行动，部分来自于他们各自的社区愿意适应并接受他们作为合法的参与者。
This chapter has introduced different strands of sociolinguistic theorizing about L2 use and L2 development. Among them, sociolinguistic factors play a role of increasing importance as learners become more advanced, but it is clear that much variability must be attributed primarily to psycholinguistic in fluence s
The remaining strands deal with SLA in a broad way, embedded in its social context. It frequently in volves case studies of individuals or groups of learners; great attention is paid to the personal qualities and ambitions of the learners, and their own social contribution to the learning context Valuable concepts such as the "community of practice " have been introduced to this field in recent work, which have been helpful for theorizing SLA as a social practice, in an integrative way
On the other hand, it is still rare to find in socio linguistic work, any close attention being paid to the linguistic detail of the learning path being followed, or the cognitive processes in volved as mention ed by Watson -Gegeo and Nielsen (2003)
As far as language learning is concerned, sociolinguistically oriented research has provided rich descriptions of the context for language learning, and the speech events (daily encounters or classroom lessons) through which it is presumed to take place. Like the Vygotskyan theorists, they believe that learning is a collaborative affair, and language knowledge is socially constructed through interact ion. But they pay less attention than the sociocultural theorists to the linguistic detail of interaction
There is no rea l parallel in L2 socialization studies to the detailed work of Ochs (1988) on linguistic development in LI socialization. While Ochs offers evidence to support her claim that the LI development can be influenced by the nature and quality of interactions in which the child becomes engaged, this idea has not yet seriously been investigated for L2 development, from a "socialization" perspective
So current ethnographies of L2 communication and of L2 socialization offer a great deal of evidence to show that the learning context, and the learner' s evolving style of engagement with it , may affect the rate of SLA. The patterning of learning opportunities, through communities of practice with structured and sometimes very unequal power relationships, has been invoked to explain learners ' differential success even though motivation is high
7. 5. 3 社会语言学研究的范围和成就
本章介绍了社会语言学关于第二语言使用和第二语言发展的理论的不同分支。在这些理论中，社会语言学因素随着学习者水平的提高而发挥着越来越重要的作用，但很明显，许多变化必须主要归因于心理语言学的影响。
其余的部分以广泛的方式处理SLA，嵌入其社会背景中。它经常包括对学习者个人或群体的案例研究；非常关注学习者的个人素质和抱负，以及他们自己对学习环境的社会贡献。 在最近的工作中，有价值的概念，如 "实践社区 "被引入这一领域，这有助于将SLA作为一种社会实践，以综合的方式进行理论研究。
另一方面，在社会语言学的工作中，仍然很少发现对所遵循的学习路径的语言细节的密切关注，或者像Watson-Gegeo和Nielsen（2003）提到的那样，所涉及的认知过程。
7. 5. 4 关于语言学习和发展的社会语言学观点
就语言学习而言，以社会语言学为导向的研究对语言学习的背景以及假定发生的言语事件（日常接触或课堂教学）进行了丰富的描述。像维果茨基理论家一样，他们认为学习是一件合作的事情，而语言知识
他们认为，学习是一件合作的事情，语言知识是通过互动的方式在社会上构建的。但他们比社会文化理论家更少关注互动的语言细节。
在L2社会化研究中，没有与Ochs（1988）关于LI社会化中语言发展的详细工作相提并论。虽然Ochs提供了证据来支持她的主张，即LI的发展可以受到儿童参与的互动的性质和质量的影响，但这个想法还没有从 "社会化 "的角度对L2的发展进行认真的研究。
因此，目前关于L2交流和L2社会化的民族志提供了大量的证据，表明学习背景和学习者与之接触的不断变化的风格，可能会影响SLA的速度。学习机会的模式化，通过具有结构化的、有时是非常不平等的权力关系的实践社区，被用来解释学习者的不同成功，即使动机很高。
L2 ethnographies take an interest in various L2 learners , from the youngest pupils to adult migrants. They take a more rounded view of the learner as a social being, than other perspectives. Dimensions such as gender and ethnicity are seen as significant for language learning success Most striking, though, is the emphasis placed by contemporary ethnographic researchers on the dynamic and alterable nature of learners ' identity and engagement with the task of SLA
Self -esteem, motivation are believed to be both constructed and reconstructed in the course of L2 interaction, with significant consequences for the rate of learning and ultimate level of success
It is c ear that a wealth of L2 studies have been carried out recently from the angles of functional, sociocultural and sociolinguistic perspectives. However, their theories and models which have been applied to the SLA study have concerned with the acquisition of collected or empirical data, somewhat not so closely related to the richness and complexity of natural languages and language learning mechanisms
The modern research, different substantially from traditional SLA study, are focusing on Input, Interaction and Output which are the topics of Chapter 8
7. 5. 5 二级学习者的社会语言学描述
二级民族志对各种二级学习者感兴趣，从最年轻的学生到成年移民。与其他观点相比，他们对学习者作为一个社会人的看法更加全面。最引人注目的是，当代人种学研究者强调学习者的身份和参与SLA任务的动态和可改变的性质。自尊和动机被认为是在二级互动的过程中被构建和重构的，对学习的速度和最终的成功水平有重大影响。
7.6 结论
最近，人们从功能、社会文化和社会语言学的角度进行了大量的二级研究。然而，他们应用于SLA研究的理论和模型都是关于收集或经验数据的获取，与自然语言和语言学习机制的丰富性和复杂性的关系不是那么密切。与自然语言和语言学习机制的丰富性和复杂性关系不大。
现代研究与传统的SLA研究有很大的不同，它们关注的是输入、互动和输出，也就是第八章的主题。
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